<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">esp</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Economy: strategy and practice</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Economy: strategy and practice</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1997-9967</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2663-550X</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Институт экономики</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.51176/1997-9967-2025-3-106-122</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">esp-1634</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>СОЦИАЛЬНАЯ ПОЛИТИКА И КАЧЕСТВО ЖИЗНИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>SOCIAL POLICY AND QUALITY OF LIFE</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Внешняя миграция трудоспособного населения в период геополитического кризиса: на примере Алматы</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>External Migration of the Working-Age Population in Times of Geopolitical Crisis: The Case of Almaty</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7148-5576</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Сагандыкова</surname><given-names>С. Ш.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Sagandykova</surname><given-names>Saule Sh.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Сагандыкова С. Ш. – к.э.н., PhD (University of Stavanger), ассоциированный профессор,</p><p>ул. Манаса 34/1, Алматы.</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Saule Sh. Sagandykova – Cand. Sc. (Econ.), PhD (University of Stavanger), Associate Professor, </p><p>34/1, Manas St., Almaty.</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">s.sagandykova@iitu.edu.kz</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8241-9854</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Омаров</surname><given-names>Г. Б.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Omarov</surname><given-names>Galym B.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Омаров Г. Б. – к.э.н., PhD (Казахская государственная академия управления), ассоциированный профессор, </p><p>ул. Манаса 34/1, Алматы.</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Galym B. Omarov - Cand. Sc. (Econ.), PhD (Kazakh State Academy of Management), Associate Professor, </p><p>34/1, Manas St., Almaty.</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">g.omarov@iitu.edu.kz</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9914-6995</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Ананьев</surname><given-names>Т. В.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Ananyev</surname><given-names>Timur V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Ананьев Т. В. – MBA (University of Nottingham, United Kingdom), старший преподователь, </p><p>ул. Манаса 34/1, Алматы.</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Timur V. Ananyev - MBA (University of Nottingham, United Kingdom), Senior Lecturer,</p><p>34/1, Manas St., Almaty.</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">t.ananyev@iitu.edu.kz</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0006-5956-3280</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Балкенова</surname><given-names>А. Б.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Balkenova</surname><given-names>Aigerim B.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Балкенова А. Б. – магистр (University of Warwick, United Kingdom), старший преподаватель, </p><p>ул. Манаса 34/1, Алматы.</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Aigerim B. Balkenova – MSc (University of Warwick, United Kingdom), Senior Lecturer,</p><p>34/1, Manas St., Almaty.</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">a.balkenova@iitu.edu.kz</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru">Международный университет информационных технологий<country>Казахстан</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en">International Information Technology University<country>Kazakhstan</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>06</day><month>10</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>20</volume><issue>3</issue><fpage>106</fpage><lpage>122</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Сагандыкова С.Ш., Омаров Г.Б., Ананьев Т.В., Балкенова А.Б., 2025</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Сагандыкова С.Ш., Омаров Г.Б., Ананьев Т.В., Балкенова А.Б.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Sagandykova S.S., Omarov G.B., Ananyev T.V., Balkenova A.B.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://esp.ieconom.kz/jour/article/view/1634">https://esp.ieconom.kz/jour/article/view/1634</self-uri><abstract><p>Целью настоящего исследования является выявление изменений во внешней миграции трудоспособного населения г. Алматы в условиях геополитической нестабильности, начиная с 2022 г. Методология исследования основана на количественном подходе и использует следующие аналитические методы: описательная статистика, сравнительный анализ основных показателей (число прибывших, выбывших, доля мигрантов с высшим образованием) до и после 2022 г., а также метод разности разностей. Информационной базой исследования послужили аналитические отчеты международных организаций (УВКБ ООН, МОМ, Всемирный банк, ОБСЕ) и официальная статистика Бюро национальной статистики Республики Казахстан за 2000-2023 гг., включая динамические таблицы по внешней миграции в разрезе стран, возраста, пола и образования. Результаты исследования показали, что с 2022 г. в г. Алматы произошёл переход от стабильной эмиграции к активной иммиграции, главным образом квалифицированных специалистов из России. В 2023 г. число въезжающих мигрантов превысило отток в 6,5 раза, а общий объем прибытий увеличился на 194,6% по сравнению с предыдущим годом. Впервые за 24 года зафиксирован приток специалистов с высшим образованием, особенно из России и стран Балтии. Более 60% иммигрантов имели высшее или среднее специальное образование. Наибольший рост зафиксирован среди специалистов в технических (27,5%), экономических (19,3%) и педагогических (17,8%) сферах. Исследование определяет региональную нестабильность и растущую привлекательность Алматы как основные движущие факторы этого сдвига. Применение результатов заключается в обосновании рекомендаций для государственной миграционной политики: развитие механизмов интеграции квалифицированных мигрантов, цифровой мониторинг потоков и др.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>The research aims to identify changes in external migration of the working-age population of Almaty in the context of geopolitical instability, starting from 2022. The research methodology is based on a quantitative approach and employs the following analytical methods: descriptive statistics, comparative analysis of key indicators (number of arrivals, emigrants, share of migrants with higher education) before and after 2022, and difference-in-differences. The source database of research is analytical reports from international organisations (UNHCR, IOM, World Bank, OSCE) and official statistics from the Bureau of National Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2000–2023, including dynamic tables on external migration by country, age, gender, and education. The findings show that since 2022, Almaty has transitioned from stable emigration to active immigration, primarily of skilled specialists from Russia. In 2023, the influx of migrants exceeded the outflow by 6.5 times, and their total number increased by 194.6% compared to the previous year. For the first time in 24 years, an influx of specialists with higher education was recorded, especially from Russia and the Baltic countries. More than 60% of immigrants had higher or secondary specialized education. The most significant increase was recorded among specialists in technical (27.5%), economic (19.3%) and pedagogical (17.8%) fields. The factors that contributed to this reversal are identified, including regional instability and the attractiveness of Almaty. The application of the results consists of substantiating recommendations for state migration policy: developing mechanisms for integrating skilled migrants, digital monitoring of flows, etc.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>экономика</kwd><kwd>городское хозяйство</kwd><kwd>региональная стратегия</kwd><kwd>геополитическая нестабильность</kwd><kwd>человеческий капитал</kwd><kwd>внешняя миграция</kwd><kwd>превентивная миграция</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>Economy</kwd><kwd>Urban Economy</kwd><kwd>Regional Strategy</kwd><kwd>Geopolitical Instability</kwd><kwd>Human Capital</kwd><kwd>External Migration</kwd><kwd>Preventive Migration</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Akorda. (2025). Glava gosudarstva provel zasedanie Soveta Bezopasnosti 2 iyulya 2025 goda [The Head of State held a meeting of the Security Council on July 2, 2025]. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.akorda.kz/ru/glava-gosudarstva-provel-zasedanie-soveta-bezopasnosti-265350</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Akorda. (2025). Glava gosudarstva provel zasedanie Soveta Bezopasnosti 2 iyulya 2025 goda [The Head of State held a meeting of the Security Council on July 2, 2025]. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.akorda.kz/ru/glava-gosudarstva-provel-zasedanie-soveta-bezopasnosti-265350</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Amrin, A. K., Kaliyeva, S. A., &amp; Alzhanova, F. G. (2020). Migration processes in Kazakhstan in the context of the formation of the Silk Road Economic Belt. Journal of Population and Social Studies, 28(2), 156–174. https://doi.org/10.25133/jpssv28n2.011</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Amrin, A. K., Kaliyeva, S. A., &amp; Alzhanova, F. G. (2020). Migration processes in Kazakhstan in the context of the formation of the Silk Road Economic Belt. Journal of Population and Social Studies, 28(2), 156–174. https://doi.org/10.25133/jpssv28n2.011</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Beine, M., Bertoli, S., &amp; Fernández-Huertas Moraga, J. (2015a). A practitioner’s guide to gravity models of international migration. The World Economy, 41(4), 496-512. https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12265</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Beine, M., Bertoli, S., &amp; Fernández-Huertas Moraga, J. (2015a). A practitioner’s guide to gravity models of international migration. The World Economy, 41(4), 496-512. https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12265</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Beine, M., Boucher, A., Burgoon, B., Crock, M., Gest, J., Hiscox, M., McGovern, P., Rapoport, H., Schaper, J., &amp; Thielemann, E. (2015b). Comparing immigration policies: An overview from the IMPALA database. International Migration Review, 50(4), 827–863. https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12169</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Beine, M., Boucher, A., Burgoon, B., Crock, M., Gest, J., Hiscox, M., McGovern, P., Rapoport, H., Schaper, J., &amp; Thielemann, E. (2015b). Comparing immigration policies: An overview from the IMPALA database. International Migration Review, 50(4), 827–863. https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12169</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Boucher, A. K., &amp; Gest, J. (2018). Crossroads: Comparative immigration regimes in a world of demographic change. Cambridge University Press.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Boucher, A. K., &amp; Gest, J. (2018). Crossroads: Comparative immigration regimes in a world of demographic change. Cambridge University Press.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Clemens, M.A., &amp; Mendola M. (2024). Migration from developing countries: Selection, income elasticity, and Simpson’s paradox. Journal of Development Economics, 171, 103359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103359</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Clemens, M.A., &amp;   Mendola M. (2024). Migration from developing countries: Selection, income elasticity, and Simpson’s paradox. Journal of Development Economics, 171, 103359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103359</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Czaika, M., &amp; Reinprecht, C. (2023). Drivers of migration: A global review. International Migration Review, 57(1), 5–36. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8183340</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Czaika, M., &amp; Reinprecht, C. (2023). Drivers of migration: A global review. International Migration Review, 57(1), 5–36. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8183340</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Dustmann, C., Fasani, F., &amp; Speciale, B. (2017). Illegal migration and returns. Journal of the European Economic Association, 15(3), 654–691. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvw017</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Dustmann, C., Fasani, F., &amp; Speciale, B. (2017). Illegal migration and returns. Journal of the European Economic Association, 15(3), 654–691. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvw017</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">International Organization for Migration. (2024). World migration report 2024. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/msite/wmr-2024-interactive/</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">International Organization for Migration. (2024). World migration report 2024. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/msite/wmr-2024-interactive/</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Iskakova, D., Kurmanalina, A., Iskakova, D., Serikbayeva, S., &amp; Ibrasheva, A. (2023). Migration impact on the labour market and economic activity of Kazakhstan. Eurasian Journal of Economic and Business Studies, 67(3), 149–162. https://doi.org/10.47703/ejebs.v3i67.317</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Iskakova, D., Kurmanalina, A., Iskakova, D., Serikbayeva, S., &amp; Ibrasheva, A. (2023). Migration impact on the labour market and economic activity of Kazakhstan. Eurasian Journal of Economic and Business Studies, 67(3), 149–162. https://doi.org/10.47703/ejebs.v3i67.317</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Nkiese, J. K., &amp; Wirba, S. K. (2024). Perspective chapter: Armed conflict and its impact on human migration – The healthcare perspective. In A. Michaud (Ed.), Global health security: Contemporary considerations and developments. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112791</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Nkiese, J. K., &amp; Wirba, S. K. (2024). Perspective chapter: Armed conflict and its impact on human migration – The healthcare perspective. In A. Michaud (Ed.), Global health security: Contemporary considerations and developments. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112791</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Matzhanova, I., Simtikov, Z., Kairbekova, A., &amp; Matzhanova, K. (2021). Stratification of youth employment and departure abroad with the purpose of work: Kazakhstan and neighboring countries. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 8(3), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/792</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Matzhanova, I., Simtikov, Z., Kairbekova, A., &amp; Matzhanova, K. (2021). Stratification of youth employment and departure abroad with the purpose of work: Kazakhstan and neighboring countries. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 8(3), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/792</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Matusevich, Y. (2024). Impacts of Russia’s war in Ukraine on migration in Central Asia. Prague Process. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.pragueprocess.eu/en/news-events/news/975-impacts-of-russiaswar-in-ukraine-on-migration-in-central-asia</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Matusevich, Y. (2024). Impacts of Russia’s war in Ukraine on migration in Central Asia. Prague Process. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.pragueprocess.eu/en/news-events/news/975-impacts-of-russiaswar-in-ukraine-on-migration-in-central-asia</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Population of the Republic of Kazakhstan. (2023). Concept of Migration Policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2023–2027. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/enbek/documents/details/383914?lang=ru</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Population of the Republic of Kazakhstan. (2023). Concept of Migration Policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2023–2027. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/enbek/documents/details/383914?lang=ru</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bureau of National statistics of the Agency for Strategic planning and reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan. (n.d.). Gross enrollment in higher education. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://stat.gov.kz/ru/industries/social-statistics/stat-edu-science-inno/dynamic-tables/</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bureau of National statistics of the Agency for Strategic planning and reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan. (n.d.). Gross enrollment in higher education. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://stat.gov.kz/ru/industries/social-statistics/stat-edu-science-inno/dynamic-tables/</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Oshchepkov, A., Tilekeyev, K., &amp; Gerry, C. (2023). The impact of the war in Ukraine on migration flows in Central Asia. University of Central Asia. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://ucentralasia.org/media/ygkl23rh/pbmigration-flow-change-in-central-asia-ru.pdf</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Oshchepkov, A., Tilekeyev, K., &amp; Gerry, C. (2023). The impact of the war in Ukraine on migration flows in Central Asia. University of Central Asia. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://ucentralasia.org/media/ygkl23rh/pbmigration-flow-change-in-central-asia-ru.pdf</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Polozhenie oralmаnov v Kazakhstane [The status of Oralman in Kazakhstan]. (2001). United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/kz/7023-21565.pdf</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Polozhenie oralmаnov v Kazakhstane [The status of Oralman in Kazakhstan]. (2001). United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/kz/7023-21565.pdf</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Rakhmetova, A., &amp; Syzdykbekov, E. (2024). Sovremennye tendentsii vneshney trudovoy migratsii v Kazakhstane [Current trends in external labor migration in Kazakhstan]. Memlekettik Audit – State Audit, 64(3), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.55871/2072-9847-2024-64-352-63 (in Russ)</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Rakhmetova, A., &amp; Syzdykbekov, E. (2024). Sovremennye tendentsii vneshney trudovoy migratsii v Kazakhstane [Current trends in external labor migration in Kazakhstan]. Memlekettik Audit – State Audit, 64(3), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.55871/2072-9847-2024-64-352-63 (in Russ)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sagandykova, S. Sh., Omarov, G. B., Ananyev, T. V., &amp; Balkenova, A. B. (2023). “Smart city” and “brain drain” (on the example of Almaty). Economy of Central Asia, 7(2), 151–170. https://doi.org/10.18334/asia.7.2.117607 (in Russ)</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sagandykova, S. Sh., Omarov, G. B., Ananyev, T. V., &amp; Balkenova, A. B. (2023). “Smart city” and “brain drain” (on the example of Almaty). Economy of Central Asia, 7(2), 151–170. https://doi.org/10.18334/asia.7.2.117607 (in Russ)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Syzdykbekov, Y. S. (2022). External labor migration as a factor in the development of the labor market in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Bulletin of Karaganda University. Economy Series, 108(4), 227–234. https://doi.org/10.31489/2022Ec4/227-234</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Syzdykbekov, Y. S. (2022). External labor migration as a factor in the development of the labor market in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Bulletin of Karaganda University. Economy Series, 108(4), 227–234. https://doi.org/10.31489/2022Ec4/227-234</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">UNHCR. (2022). What is the difference between a refugee and a migrant? Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.unrefugees.org/news/what-is-the-difference-between-a-refugee-and-a-migrant/</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">UNHCR. (2022). What is the difference between a refugee and a migrant? Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.unrefugees.org/news/what-is-the-difference-between-a-refugee-and-a-migrant/</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">UNHCR. (2023). Refugee data finder – Key indicators. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">UNHCR. (2023). Refugee data finder – Key indicators. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ukraine refugee situation. (2023). UNHCR Data Portal. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/ukraine</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ukraine refugee situation. (2023). UNHCR Data Portal. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/ukraine</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Williams, N. E., O’Brien, M. L., &amp; Yao, X. (2021). How armed conflict influences migration. Population and Development Review, 47(4), 1001–1030. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12408</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Williams, N. E., O’Brien, M. L., &amp; Yao, X. (2021). How armed conflict influences migration. Population and Development Review, 47(4), 1001–1030. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12408</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">World Bank. (2022). Migration and Development Brief 37. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099818008142419054/pdf/IDU12966350716a711437b1850019065d7f1eda1.pdf</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">World Bank. (2022). Migration and Development Brief 37. Retrieved August 07, 2025 from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099818008142419054/pdf/IDU12966350716a711437b1850019065d7f1eda1.pdf</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
